​Pottery, an art form with ancient roots, has evolved into a versatile craft with numerous techniques that offer endless possibilities for creativity. Perhaps the oldest and most accessible method, hand-building lets potters form clay without tools. This method uses coiling and pinching to make containers from clay. Another hand-building approach is slab construction, which uses flat clay sheets to make geometric or organic shapes. These methods let potters explore form and texture. 

Introducing the potter's wheel marked a significant turning point in ceramic production, giving rise to the method known as throwing. Potters can create symmetrical and refined pieces like bowls, vases, and plates by centering a lump of clay on the spinning wheel and carefully manipulating it. This technique allows for precision and creates thinner and more uniform walls. Mastering the potter's wheel requires practice and attention to detail, as the hands' speed, pressure, and position play a crucial role in the outcome.

Slip casting, often associated with mass production, offers a different approach to pottery-making. This technique involves pouring liquid clay or slip, into plaster molds, which absorb moisture and leave a solid layer of clay along the mold's surface. After reaching the desired thickness, potters drain the excess slip and allow the form to set before carefully removing it. Slip casting is beneficial for producing intricate and identical designs, making it a popular choice for commercial and decorative ceramics.

An essential step in pottery is trimming, which refines pieces created on the wheel or through other techniques. Once the clay has reached a leather-hard stage, it is placed back on the wheel to remove excess material and define details such as the foot or rim. This process enhances the piece's visual appeal and ensures balance and functionality. Trimming requires precision, as uneven pressure or mishandling can compromise the piece's integrity.

The application of glaze adds both decorative and functional qualities to pottery. Potters combine silica, alumina, and flux to create a glaze that transforms into a glass-like layer when fired, enhancing the surface with color, texture, and waterproofing. Potters can apply glaze by dipping, brushing, or spraying, each providing distinctive visual results. The firing process is vital as the kiln's temperature and environment may affect the glaze's look, producing finishes varying from glossy to matte or rough to smooth.

Sgraffito is a decorative technique that combines artistry and craftsmanship. Potters create intricate patterns and designs by applying a layer of contrasting colored slip to the surface of the clay and then carving through it to reveal the underlying body. This method demands precision and timing, as the clay must be firm enough to carve without cracking but not too dry to resist the tool's movement. Sgraffito allows for detailed and expressive imagery, adding a layer of storytelling to the pottery.

The choice of clay itself plays a critical role in the outcome of a piece. Various clay forms, including ball clay, earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain, have unique qualities influencing their firing temperature, texture, and color. Earthenware - which fires at lower temperatures and is more porous - is perfect for ornamental items. Conversely, stoneware is denser and more robust, which fits practical objects like mugs and plates. The porcelain reveals fine details due to its delicate look and robustness but requires higher firing temperatures.

Exploring these techniques showcases the rich diversity of pottery and how tradition intersects with innovation. While the methods have distinct characteristics, their value lies in their adaptability and potential for creative expression.

​Integrating 3D printing into archaeological research has revolutionized the field, offering previously unattainable methods. It allows researchers to create highly accurate replicas of fragile artifacts, minimizing the need for direct handling and reducing the risk of damage. This precision safeguards invaluable cultural heritage while enabling the meticulous study of ancient objects. By preserving their form and intricate details, the technology ensures that artifacts remain accessible for future generations.

This innovation also enhances access to historical artifacts, particularly for educational and public engagement. Museums and academic institutions can produce lifelike replicas that allow individuals to interact with history tangibly. The hands-on experience fosters a deeper understanding of cultural narratives, bridging the gap between the past and present. Students and visitors benefit from engaging directly with objects that would otherwise remain out of reach due to their fragility or location.

Another significant application is the restoration of damaged artifacts. By employing 3D scanning and printing techniques, archaeologists can recreate missing or fragmented pieces, offering insights into these objects' original appearance and function. Unlike traditional restoration methods, this approach is non-invasive, preserving the artifact's structural and historical integrity while providing a clearer picture of its original context.

3D printing has also opened new avenues for experimental archaeology, enabling researchers to test hypotheses about the use and effectiveness of ancient tools and artifacts. Researchers use functional replicas to study wear patterns, functionality, and historical communities' methods. This experimental approach sheds light on the daily lives of ancient civilizations, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of human history.

In archaeology, 3D printing bridges gaps between traditional and digital craftsmanship. By merging historical designs with modern techniques, researchers can recreate artifacts with a precision that blends cultural authenticity and technological innovation, opening pathways for interdisciplinary artistic collaborations.

The digital aspect of 3D printing has transformed collaborative research, including the sharing of digital models, allowing scholars to study and analyze artifacts without physical transportation. This global accessibility accelerates the exchange of knowledge and encourages interdisciplinary collaboration. It fosters a collective effort to uncover the intricacies of human history, transcending geographical barriers.

3D printing enhances public engagement with archaeology. Replicated artifacts displayed in exhibitions allow people to explore history in a more interactive and accessible way. These efforts help demystify archaeologists' work and highlight their findings' relevance to contemporary culture. Such initiatives are instrumental in raising awareness about the importance of preserving cultural heritage.

Beyond its educational and restorative applications, 3D printing has become essential in safeguarding cultural heritage in regions threatened by conflict or natural disasters. Archaeologists preserve their forms and historical significance by creating digital archives and physical replicas of endangered artifacts, even if the originals are lost. This proactive approach addresses the challenges of artifact preservation in unstable environments.

The economic benefits of 3D printing in archaeology are equally significant. Producing replicas is often more cost-effective than transporting and securing original artifacts for study or exhibition. This cost efficiency allows institutions with limited budgets to access and showcase critical cultural materials. As a result, smaller museums and universities can participate in preserving and sharing archaeological knowledge.

The application of this technology also addresses ethical considerations. 3D printing reduces the need for direct contact with artifacts, thereby mitigating risks of deterioration. This technology promotes the ethical management of archaeological collections, allowing professionals to handle cultural objects in ways that respect their origins and historical significance. This approach aligns with the broader principles of responsible stewardship within the field.

Integrating 3D printing with other emerging technologies, such as virtual and augmented reality, could further transform archaeological research and education. Imagine exploring ancient sites digitally reconstructed alongside 3D-printed artifacts, offering immersive experiences that deepen your understanding of history. These innovations highlight the limitless potential of combining advanced technologies to preserve, explore, and interpret the past in ways that resonate with modern audiences.

​Choosing between wheel throwing and hand building as your preferred pottery technique depends on several factors. Artists and hobbyists have cherished both techniques for their unique processes and results, but your choice largely depends on what you aim to achieve with clay and how you connect with the creative process. By understanding the nuances of each, you can align your preferences with the approach that resonates most with your artistic goals.

Wheel throwing involves shaping clay on a spinning potter's wheel. It produces symmetrical, practical bowls, mugs, and vases. If you like organized, repetitive chores, the wheel's rhythmic motion lets you focus on accuracy and control, which is enjoyable. The coordination needed to center and shape clay takes practice, but the thrill of making perfectly rounded items is worth it. Wheel tossing is a dependable and quick way to achieve usefulness and consistency in your work.

In contrast, hand-building embraces a more tactile and intuitive approach to hand-shaping, utilizing coiling, slab construction, and pinching. Working without a wheel allows for organic, asymmetrical patterns that express uniqueness. Hand-building lets you overlay textures, shape delicate features, and create unique forms that are hard to recreate on a wheel, encouraging creativity. This method suits artists who value expressiveness over symmetry and accuracy.

One critical difference between these techniques lies in the level of equipment required. Beginning potters or those without a shared workshop may find wheel throwing expensive. Hand construction requires little equipment and allows beginners and people with low resources to work anywhere. Hand-building is appealing to those who love making at their speed without specialist tools.

The learning curve is another factor to consider when deciding between these methods. Wheel throwing requires synchronization of the wheel's speed, hand movements, and clay pressure, making it difficult initially, which requires persistence and patience. Hand building is a gentler introduction to pottery. The processes are more straightforward, and errors may inspire creativity. This makes hand-building appealing to people who want a less regimented creative approach.

Another distinction emerges in the types of projects each method supports. Wheel throwing excels at producing multiples of similar shapes and sizes, making it ideal if you plan to create matching sets or focus on functional pottery. Hand building, however, opens the door to sculptural pieces and one-of-a-kind designs that highlight the artist's personal touch. Depending on whether you lean toward utility or artistic expression, one technique might align more closely with your creative vision.

Texture and surface decoration also vary significantly between the two methods. Wheel-thrown pieces often have smooth, flowing surfaces that complement glazes well, creating a polished finish. Hand-built pieces, however, frequently showcase textural details and layered embellishments that enhance the tactile quality of the work. Choosing between these surface qualities can influence how you envision your finished pieces and the sensory experience they provide users.

Your creative mindset and how you interact with clay are the most personal factors in choosing a technique. If you thrive on consistency and the meditative rhythm of repetitive motion, wheel throwing can provide a satisfying outlet. Alternatively, hand-building allows greater freedom to adapt and improvise if you seek spontaneity and enjoy shaping your ideas as they evolve. Reflecting on how you approach the artistic process can help clarify which method feels more aligned with your personality.

Deciding between wheel throwing and hand building isn't about limiting yourself to one approach. Many potters believe that using both methods improves their clay knowledge and creativity. The precision of wheel throwing and organic hand construction create a dynamic approach to exploring your artistic potential. Each approach offers a distinct ceramic experience, organized or spontaneous.

​Archaeology plays a foundational role in uncovering and interpreting the mysteries of early civilizations. The careful excavation and analysis of physical remains give access to tangible evidence of societies long gone, piecing together the narrative of human development. These finds provide rare views into early lifestyles, interactions, and adaptations. Tools, ceramics, and constructions illustrate the technology and craftsmanship of the time, revealing survival mechanisms, creative expressions, and daily lives.

The study of ancient settlements offers insight into social hierarchies and cultural norms. For example, burial sites provide valuable information about how societies distributed status and power. Differences in grave goods, the size of tombs, and the positioning of bodies highlight variations in social stratification and religious beliefs. This tangible evidence allows the inference of values, traditions, and priorities without written records, often incomplete or nonexistent in early civilizations. In such cases, archaeology serves as the primary source of historical understanding.

Archaeology also sheds light on the development of agriculture and trade, two pillars of human advancement. By researching artifacts, irrigation systems, and crops, scientists can track human evolution from hunter-gatherers to farmers. This change led to larger, more structured societies. Trading routes and items such as pottery and metals found far from their origins show early civilizations' interdependence. These findings show how trading systems fueled economic expansion, cultural dispersion, and political alliances.

Religious practices and belief systems become clearer through archaeological discoveries. Ritual sites, temples, and offerings reveal the spiritual frameworks that guided these civilizations. For instance, evidence of sacrifices or ceremonial tools reveals relationships with deities and nature. The iconography on pottery and monuments further provides windows into symbolic communication, offering narratives about creation, life, and death. Through this lens, scientists can see how faith and tradition shaped communities and influenced their development.

Archaeological techniques reveal technological advancements, another critical aspect of early civilizations. Tools, weapons, and construction materials demonstrate the ingenuity of early societies. Radiocarbon dating and modern scientific methods pinpoint when these innovations emerged, linking technological progress to cultural evolution. For example, advancements in metallurgy and the design of monumental architecture, such as pyramids and ziggurats, reflect engineering skills and the organizational capacity to mobilize large workforces. These developments mark significant milestones in human history.

Environmental and climatic conditions are other areas in which archaeology provides vital insights. Ancient remnants, soil layers, and fossils show how early civilizations interacted with their environment and responded to natural difficulties. Deforestation, irrigation, and settlement patterns show environmental adaptations. Environmental mismanagement has destroyed civilizations, highlighting the delicate balance between human growth and ecological sustainability. These teachings warn against the long-term effects of environmental neglect.

Archaeological research also reveals the evolution of writing systems and communication. Early inscriptions, tablets, and carvings provide the first examples of written records, marking the transition from oral traditions to documentation. The discovery of Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs gives a deeper understanding of these societies' governance, trade, and personal relationships. When combined with physical artifacts, written records create a more comprehensive narrative of human history, allowing for the reconstruction of events, laws, and cultural practices.

In the digital age, archaeology has embraced advanced technologies that revolutionize the study of early civilizations. Remote sensing, 3D modeling, and radiocarbon dating make reconstructing ancient locations and artifacts more accurate. These advancements preserve historical evidence. The stories of early civilizations come to life in these rebuilt settings, making them immersive and informative. These instruments protect artifacts while studying them, preserving history for future generations.

​Using bioarchaeology to learn about old societies allows people to see into the past and learn how ancient civilizations lived, worked, and died. A subfield of archaeology, bioarchaeology studies human remains to grasp former civilizations' biological and cultural facets. By piecing together skeletal remains, bioarchaeologists may create a whole picture of ancient life, exposing information about food, health, and social systems.

Bioarchaeology uses bone and tooth analysis. These human bodily components disclose much about a person's lifestyle and surroundings. For example, whereas bone density and structure might hint at physical activity and general health, the wear patterns on teeth can show the kinds of food eaten. Finding evidence of illnesses, dietary deficits, and accidents also provides a window into ancient societies' difficulties.

Next, bioarchaeology uses isotopic study. Bone and tooth chemical signals allow scientists to deduce specifics on migratory patterns and food. Certain isotopes, for instance, might point to a diet primarily based on plants or one heavy in marine resources. This method can also assist in tracking the movement of people or groups, clarifying historical trade and migration trends.

More than merely presenting statistics, bioarchaeology humanizes the past. Every set of remains stands for a once-living individual whose surroundings and culture molded their story. Examining these remnants helps us appreciate past societies' variety and complexity. Bioarchaeology reveals the complex fabric of human history from the busy Mesopotamia cities to the remote Andes villages.

Integrating bioarchaeological discoveries into museum exhibits and publications allows the public to engage with history in a more personal and tangible way. As scientists refine their techniques and tools, their understanding of past civilizations will only deepen, enriching human history and development. Through bioarchaeology, the lives of ancient people continue to speak to us, offering valuable insights that remain relevant today.

​The Register of Professional Archeologists brings together professional archeologists whose mission is to uphold the professional standards and ethics of the profession, as well as act as a resource for those in need of professional archeological services. In line with its mandate, the register has developed an Archeological Ethics Database, an ongoing collaboration between the Register of Professional Archaeologists and the Chartered Institute for Archaeologists (CIfA). The aim of the database is to pool sources on archeological ethics into a single platform which can be accessed by professional archeologists, researchers, and students. The Archeological Ethics Database consists of over 500 sources associated with ethics in archeology which can be accessed in multiple ways.

For starters, the search bar feature allows system users to search for specific names, words, and phrases. In addition, the left-hand side bar offers users multiple browse features. Users can also browse by type of source to obtain codes of ethics for societies, blogs and blog posts, books and chapters, courses and syllabi, journal articles, and online resources.

There’s also an option to browse by keywords and terms, allowing users to browse using a set of keywords and phrases commonly associated with archeological ethics. The keywords and terms have been developed based on a survey of more than 100 codes of ethics. Other ways of accessing information from the database include browse by the RPA Code and Standards, which enables users to find sources based on the Register’s Code of Conduct and Standards of Professional Behavior.

Finally, users can browse by topics and issues, a section that contains over 80 popular topics, issues, and themes faced by archeologists when handling ethical issues in the course of their work. Each entry is accompanied by a BibText feature which enables users to export bibliographic information from every source.

​A January 2018 mudslide in Montecito, Califonia killed Eagle Scout Jack Cantin, a junior at Santa Barbara High School. Tragically, the mudslide claimed the lives of 23 people in total, including Jack Cantin’s father. The mudslide also injured over 150 people and destroyed more than 400 homes. First Responders rescued Jack's sister, Lauren, alive, from a pile of debris and mud. Meanwhile, the bodies of Jack Cantin and Lydia Sutthithepa, a two-year-old girl, remained missing, despite extensive search efforts. In the weeks and months following the disaster, community members worked tirelessly to discover remains by digging through heaps of mud and debris. Despite their best efforts, they were unable to find the remains of the children among the approximately 4 million buckets of debris.

In 2020, Jack's mother, Kim Cantin, contacted the anthropology department at The University of California Santa Barbara (UCSB, UC Santa Barbara) in an attempt to recruit the assistance of experts there. One faculty member, Danielle Kurin, founding director of the Walker Bioarchaeology and Forensic Bone Lab, responded. Together with a team of researchers, Kurin was eager to help Kim Cantin and the community find out what happened to the missing.

Kurin and her colleagues used a number of field and analytical approaches to find Jack Cantin's remains. Their findings were based on a variety of sources, including interviews with residents, survivors, first responders, and coroners' reports from previous years, as well as eyewitness stories, aerial footage, photographs, and satellite imagery of the catastrophe zone. Using these methods, they were able to locate specific "hot zones" within the 110-acre search area. While on site, they conducted targeted surveys, soil sampling, and test pitting.

After over 14 months of searching, in cooperation with local authorities, and with the help of human remains and cadaver detection dogs, the crew discovered a debris slump downstream of the Cantin home that was full of pieces of furnishings, fixtures, and personal effects from Jack's bedroom--the place he was sheltering in when the disaster struck. During the mudslide, many of Jack's possessions became caught in the fishnet-like weave of an oriental rug from his bedroom. It was in this context, and within the tattered remnants of clothing Jack was wearing at the time, that the team found several miniscule, very poorly preserved, fragments of bone. Kurin and the team examined, documented, and analyzed the fragments and determined that the remains were consistent with being human and of recent origin, and reported and turned them over to the coroner's office.

Ever mindful of the need to treat the remains with dignity, the research team deployed an arsenal of advanced, forensic, osteological, archaeometric, and  biogeochemical approaches to determine the approximate antiquity, height, sex, age-at-death, pathological conditions, peri-mortem trauma, and post-mortem damage of the bone fragments. Kurin’s team found that the results aligned with the biological profile of Jack Cantin, to the exclusion of other missing persons and unidentified remains, and submitted a detailed report to the county sheriff-coroner. A battery of different DNA tests--each more destructive than the last--yielded predictably inconclusive reports due to the degradation and contamination of the poorly-preserved fragments. Further testing would have destroyed all that remained, and Mrs. Cantin's wanted to have something left of Jack to bury; she did not want to bury an empty casket. Ultimately, Ms. Cantin prevailed, and the courts granted Kim's request to bury the precious remains; Jack's grave is next to his father's, on peaceful hill that overlooks the beautiful Montecito coast.

Kim Cantin tells the story of her unimaginable loss and the hope she found in the search for her son in her highly aclaimed and award-winning book, "Where Yellow Flowers Bloom," available for purchase on Amazon and from booksellers worldwide.

​Danielle Kurin, a University of California anthropologist, led a team of students to search and locate the remains of Jack Cantin, an Eagle Scout who died in a mudslide at Montecito in January 2018. The remains of the 17-year-old were recovered in 2021, three years after the Montecito landslide, which claimed the life of his dad, Dave Cantin. Lab analysis confirmed the remains to be those of Jack Cantin. 23 people lost their lives, and 150 people were injured when a heavy downpour swept rocks, mud, and burnt debris from a previous wildfire downhill, affecting a coastal settlement east of Santa Barbara. Four hundred hundred homes were destroyed during the mudslide that dominated national news after a previous wildfire that had affected the same area where top celebrities such as Oprah Winfrey, Dick Wolf, and Ellen DeGeneres reside. According to the victim’s mother, Kim Cantin, the teenager’s remains were discovered within 1,000 feet of where the family home once stood.

After the mudslide, quick action from first responders saved the lives of Lauren, Jack’s younger sister, from the sludge and debris. However, neither Jack Cantin nor two-year-old Lydia Sutthithepa were recovered despite relentless efforts to find them. After an extended unsuccessful search from community volunteers, Kim Cantin decided to seek expert assistance from the University of California Santa Barbara anthropology department. Her case was taken up by Danielle Kurin, an assistant professor and Director of the Walker Bioarchaeology & Forensic Bone Lab, and her team of research assistants. The team utilized their expertise using techniques such as bone biogeochemistry, x-ray fluorescence, and flouring absorption analysis to find the teenager’s remains. Dr. Kurin and her team secured the scene as an archaeological investigation and limited their search to a 110-acre search area using coroner’s reports, old archival records, photos, videos, and witness testimonials.

​
After death, the body undergoes a series of natural transformative decomposition processes that dissolve the soft tissues and internal organs. In some cases, depending on various conditions, like temperature, exposure to solar radiation, ventilation, and humidity, the rapid loss of body moisture necessary for decomposition results in a total drying up of the soft tissue in a process called mummification. Environments that provide the right conditions for mummification include deserts, peat bogs, salt, and ice.

Hot deserts encourage mummification rather than decomposition, as dry heat speeds up the loss of water by the body. The cell enzymes that digest the cells and, consequently, the internal organs require aqueous solutions like water to work. As the body progressively dehydrates, the decomposition process slows down.

Peat bogs also offer a prime environment for mummification. Bogs consist of dense wetlands full of partially decayed vegetation and acidic, cool water devoid of oxygen. The water also lacks minerals like iron, copper, and zinc, which are necessary for bacteria to thrive. This combination of factors preserves the body in a mummified state, resulting in a leathery, brownish body that retains its skin, hair, and nails.

Salt also absorbs moisture, dehydrates the body, and can cause natural mummification in large quantities. Salt can either be found in salt mines or the soil (in the form of nitrate compounds, potassium, sodium, and calcium). Several strains of bacteria that encourage decay cannot survive in a concentrated brine solution. The Egyptians used natron, a type of salt with great drying properties, for their mummification rituals.

Finally, cold and icy conditions work like a giant freezer for the body, preserving the soft tissue by freezing the cellular aqueous solution and other body fluids. These low temperatures render enzymes, bacteria, and other organisms inactive, shielding the body from decomposition.

​From around 600 to 1000 AD, the Wari empire dominated the Peruvian Andes’ central highland region and held territory that extended to the South Pacific coast. Approximately 800 years before the Incans, the Wari founded the capital Huari and from there mounted expeditions that captured a wide swathe of territory. Their methods of conquest varied: at times they used intimidation and force, as when decapitating captives from communities they overran and creating mummified trophy heads.

This violence appears to have been limited and ritualized: a more lasting way of expanding territory involved constructing irrigation canals in areas prone to drought and bringing agriculture to formerly barren regions. Across several hundred years, they were able to control and manage an area roughly the size of contemporary Peru.

The abrupt collapse of the Wari empire led to a 400 year dark age that extended until the Inca society emerged and created an even vaster empire, extending across the entire spine of South America. The distance of this new empire was similar to that between Tehran and London.

Tying the disparate geographies and people who inhabited the ancient Andes together is no mean feat. As reported in National Geographic, researchers at the Field Museum in Chicago gained insight into provincial banquets from excavations at Cerro Baul, a diplomatic outpost situated around two to three weeks journey (on foot) southeast from Huari. The site has an ancient brewery that was estimated to have the capacity for producing as many as 500 gallons of chicha (a beer-like alcoholic beverage). Considering that chicha would go bad in around five days without refrigeration, it appears that large banquets and festivals were held that brought together hundreds of local tribe members. Drinking and brewing vessels were crafted on-site to resemble Wari gods, and the grog was made from corn and molle (pepper berry). The latter is drought resistant and would survive even when the corn crop failed. Interestingly, comparing various sites such as Huari and Cerro Baul indicates that the decline of the Wari empire may have occurred over a hundred year period, from 950 to 1050 AD, with some localities able to preserve traditions such as alcohol-laden festivals significantly longer.

The collapse of the culture appears to have been tied to extreme drought that caused such deprivation and violence that it left an imprint on the archaeological record. A Vanderbilt University bioarchaeologist found that around 20 percent of adult skulls in imperial Huari had evidence of nonlethal, healed skull fractures. However, during and after the society’s collapse, some 60 percent of adults and nearly 40 percent of children had nonlethal head injuries. (Skulls compared were radiocarbon dated from 897 to 1150 AD.)

During the latter part of this period, the Chanka people emerged from the Wari ashes. Examinations of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) composition of remains found in the Ayacucho Basin suggests that these people were direct descendants of the Wari, as the mtDNA is essentially unchanged. That said, the society was markedly different. The Chanka formed a subsistence-based society that did not produce written records, lacked commercial networks, and didn’t have many tools or finished goods.

Examining Chanka skulls from 1270 to 1390 AD, the Vanderbilt researcher found that head injury deaths, around 10 percent during the Wari period, increased to 40 percent among adults and 44 percent among children during this time. The cause was not brawls or feuds, but systematic, lethal violence and warfare, whether internally among clans or committed against those “perceived as outsiders.”