Quechuan languages of the former Inca Empire hold the essence of South American heritage. Originating in the southern Peruvian highlands around 2,600 BC, the languages rapidly expanded because of the Inca conquests, extending from Southern Colombia to Central Chile and the Pacific coast to the Amazon basin.
The Quechua family, known as Runasimi in Quechua (runa meaning "people" and simi meaning "speech"), comprise approximately 45 related languages. Spoken by nearly 10 million people in the Andean region of South America, Quechua possesses a history predating the Inca Empire. Quechua became the official language of the Inca kings of Cuzco, the heart of the Inca Empire. As the empire flourished from 1438 to 1533 AD, Quechua became Peru's common language, spreading to Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile. Even before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the 16th century, Quechua had permeated vast regions, reaching Colombia, Brazil, and Argentina. In 2024, Quechua faces the challenge of encroachment by the Spanish language in Peru and Bolivia, where Spanish is the official language of government and education. While Quechua remains the language of everyday communication for many, it is gradually yielding to Spanish. Quechua, with its complex history, diverse dialects, and unique linguistic features, stands as a testament to the endurance of indigenous languages in historical upheavals and linguistic shifts. Quechua (along with Spanish and Aymara) holds official language status in Peru and Bolivia. However, Spanish takes precedence in formal contexts such as government, administration, commerce, education, and media. Bilingual education efforts in Peru face challenges, while Bolivia and Ecuador are making strides in revitalizing Quechua through bilingual programs. The sound system of Quechua is relatively uncomplicated, featuring three vowels and 14 consonants. The language builds words from basic roots and suffixes. Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable; the standard word order is subject-object-verb. Its nouns, adjectives, and pronouns exhibit unique characteristics, such as the absence of gender in nouns, the optional use of the plurals, and possession marked by suffixes. Person, tense, and aspect use verbs, while the language incorporates object pronouns into the verb. Quechua vocabulary, estimated to have borrowed up to a third from Spanish, reflects influences from the colonial era. The Incas lacked a written language before the Spanish introduced the Latin alphabet. The civilization recorded information in the form of knotted strings or khipu. Khipus served as a method of record-keeping, and its primary function was to store and convey information. The Inca used khipus for various purposes, including accounting, census data, agricultural statistics, and historical narratives. Since the Spanish conquest, Quechua has used the Roman alphabet with variations. The Spanish conquest destroyed many khipus; some survived it, and museums house the remnants. One notable collection is the Khipu Database Project, which aims to compile information about existing khipus. Quechua's influence extends beyond language into culture. In the movies, Quechua is the basis of the fictional Huttese language in Star Wars. Additionally, several words entered the English language through Quechua via Spanish, including "condor," "guano," and "llama." As Quechua faces challenges from linguistic assimilation, efforts continue to revitalize and preserve it. The language stands as a living testament to the resilience of indigenous cultures in the Andean region, weaving a narrative that spans millennia.
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Dr. Danielle Kurin is a professor, researcher, and anthropologist specializing in bioarchaeology. In 2016, Dr. Danielle Kurin published a book titled The Bioarchaeology of Societal Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Peru. As part of her research, she studied skeletal remains belonging to the Chanka people, who once lived in the Andes.
The Chanka people inhabited the slopes of south-central Peru from the 10th to the 14th centuries. They typically settled in the countryside close to sources of food and water. After the fall of the Wari Empire in the 14th century, the Chanka population relocated to the hilltops of the Andes, where it formed an even stronger society. Due to the lack of a proper city structure, government, or records of their lifestyle, Chanka history is studied today through dried bone derived from human remains. The Chankas' legacy includes medical procedures such as the practice of trepanation, a surgical operation in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull. Additionally, research suggests that their religious beliefs revolved around worshipping the mummified bodies of their ancestors. Dr. Danielle Kurin is a professor, researcher, and anthropologist specializing in bioarchaeology. In 2016, Dr. Danielle Kurin published a book titled The Bioarchaeology of Societal Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Peru. As part of her research, she studied skeletal remains belonging to the Chanka people, who once lived in the Andes.
The Chanka people inhabited the slopes of south-central Peru from the 10th to the 14th centuries. They typically settled in the countryside close to sources of food and water. After the fall of the Wari Empire in the 14th century, the Chanka population relocated to the hilltops of the Andes, where it formed an even stronger society. Due to the lack of a proper city structure, government, or records of their lifestyle, Chanka history is studied today through dried bone derived from human remains. The Chankas' legacy includes medical procedures such as the practice of trepanation, a surgical operation in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull. Additionally, research suggests that their religious beliefs revolved around worshipping the mummified bodies of their ancestors. In 2021, the University of California in Santa Barbara (UCSB) helped Kim Cantin come to peace about her missing son, Jack Cantin. The Cantin investigation illustrates forensic anthropology's use in investigations, be they criminal or not, such as recovery operations following a disaster.
Wildfires and heavy rains were the catalyst behind the January 9, 2018 mudslide in Montecito, California. The mudslide swept away the family's Montecito Creek home and other neighborhoods, culminating in 23 fatalities. Mrs. Cantin's husband, Dave, was also among those killed in the mudslide, but first responders recovered his body. Jack's whereabouts were unknown until the UCSB anthropology team recovered his presumptive remains in 2021. The UCSB anthropological team became involved with the case after Mrs. Cantin reached out to the university for assistance in 2020 after the authorities failed to locate and recover his body. Researchers at the Walker Bioarchaeology & Forensic Bone Lab decided to help Mrs. Cantin find closure and took up the case. Much of the team's success in recovering Jack's presumptive body came because the researchers treated the search area like an archaeological excavation site. The area covered 110 acres, and the team identified hot zones, which they designated "hot" by reviewing old archival records, coroner's reports, videos, satellite images of the disaster area, photos, and witness testimony. They interviewed first responders, survivors, residents, and other community members. Outside of interviews, the team engaged in survey work, soil sampling, large-scale excavations, and test-pitting, which involved digging a small area layer-by-layer to uncover past human activity (like evidence of clothing, dishware, or other artifacts). They also relied on the expertise of soil scientists and hydrologists (who study water and its movement) and used specially trained dogs that detected human bone and tissue. After mapping and collecting every artifact (shard of glass, kitchen tile, fabric), the team used various techniques, such as x-ray fluorescence, fluorine absorption analysis, and bone biogeochemistry. Students working on the project constructed a "body farm" using pig carcasses, which helped them understand body decomposition's nature and chemistry in the area. These techniques resulted in critical breakthroughs, including discovering the remains in one of the team's hot zones. Using forensic, osteological (bone study), and archaeometry (use of technology in archaeology) techniques, the researchers approximated the age, sex, stature, and heritage, of the remain recovered, which was absolutely consistent with Jack Cantin's profile. This case represents the wonders anthropological teams can accomplish in helping crime investigators close cases. In academia, anthropology researchers study humans, encompassing the evaluation of physical characteristics, behavior, history, social traditions, and culture. However, when combined with forensics, anthropology provides investigators insight into how humans live. Forensic anthropologists have become very useful in helping investigators solve crimes and provide closure to families during natural disasters because they focus on analyzing human remains, namely bones. The analysis involves looking at the badly decomposed body, including the skeleton, for legal and humanitarian reasons. While not the case with the Cantin discovery, forensic anthropologists sometimes must treat entire areas as a potential crime scene. The Cantin case illustrates how forensic anthropologists work to uncover the person's age, sex, physical features, and the trauma inflicted upon their bodies simply by analyzing the state of the individual's bones. Furthermore, these types of discoveries in forensic anthropology can supplement investigations that previously relied on DNA and fingerprint evidence to conclude cases, when such information is not available. Ultimately, forensic anthropology allows for a more comprehensive examination of a case. More importantly, as with Mrs. Cantin and recovering her son's body, the discoveries made as a part of the forensic anthropological investigation give families closure. In other cases, if perpetrators are involved and a crime has been committed, forensic anthropology is one step in the larger criminal justice process which aims to bring justice to suffering victims. The recipient of the 2013 Tri-Delta Teacher Appreciation Award, Danielle Kurin, PhD, is an former assistant professor- and later tenured associate professor-- of bioarchaeology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Danielle Kurin has conducted several studies at various archaeological sites (mainly in Peru and Bolivia) and has also written papers on various archeological topics, including prehistoric life in ancient periods. She performs both on-site and laboratory analysis of skeletal remains.
Some human remains still hold substantial preserved portions of mineralized parts (bones, teeth) of the deceased. To archaeologists, this means a great deal of information about the deceased - such as their age, sex, health, likely cause of death, the period of death, and more. Archeologists can conduct multiple studies on remains, some of which involve lab testing and the use of special technologies. However, just by taking a closer at the bones and teeth, they can tell the age of the deceased, sex, and some other information. To determine sex, archaeologists often analyze the pelvis and skull since these are the two most important parts for sex determination. Often, females have a wider pelvis, which is important for childbirth. There is also a pelvic structure called ventral arc, which is explicitly found in females. In addition, some complex features of the pelvis that play an important role - these include a broader sciatic notch, wider subpubic angle, and a well-defined subpubic concavity. By looking at the skull, archeologists may assess several areas, including the forehead and eye socket: Frontal bone (forehead): Female skulls usually have rounded frontal bone, while those of males are less rounded and often slope backward. Also, the brow ridge (at the base of the forehead) is usually more prominent in males compared to females. Eye Socket: Females often have round eye sockets with sharp edges along the upper borders. On the contrary, most males have square-like orbits with blunter upper border edges. Danielle Kurin is a former assistant professor and tenured associate professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, California. At the university, she lectures undergraduate and graduate courses in the department of anthropology. Danielle Kurin engages in field research, particularly in forensic anthropology.
Anthropology deals with the study of humans. Anthropologists examine almost every facet of the life of a particular group of people. They are often interested in the remains of the living, language, physical evidence of human occupation (artifacts), and culture. Forensic anthropology includes investigating human skeletal systems to identify ambiguous human remains, analyze trauma, and calculate the passing of time. It is often associated with solving criminal cases. Forensic anthropologists are experts at examining the body when people discover human remnants. They usually collect data from the skeletons and their retrieval environment to ascertain who died, the circumstances surrounding their death, and the period of their death. Experts in forensic anthropology focus on examining hard tissues like bones. They have experience uncovering buried relics and methodically recording the facts utilizing their background in archaeology. Danielle Kurin, PhD, is a former University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) assistant professor and later tenured associate professor and anthropologist who ran the UCSB Philip Walker Bioarchaeology and Forensic Bone Lab, and instructed on cultures of the central Andes. In 2020, Danielle Kurin took on a community assignment stemming from the 2018 Montecito mudslide, which destroyed more than 400 homes, injuring 150 people and killing 23.
Among those who perished were Santa Barbara High School student Jack Cantin and his father. Along with Lydia Sutthithepa, a two-year-old, Jack’s remains were not found, so in 2020, his mother reached out to the Bioarchaeology Lab for help. Professor Kurin and her research assistants set up a work site that resembled an archaeological dig, with “hot zones” identified within a search site spanning 110 acres. The team implemented surveys, test-pitting, and excavation. In addition to applying the insights of hydrologists and soil scientists, they relied on canines trained in human bone and tissue detection to make progress. Each fragment, from a piece of cloth to a kitchen tile, was carefully collected and mapped, with techniques such as fluorine absorption analysis, fluorescence, and bone biogeochemistry applied. Ultimately, remains were found consistent with Jack Cantin in terms of stature, age, sex, and antiquity, and these were returned to his mother. Unfortunately, the remains of the toddler Lydia were never found and they have been deemed unrecoverable and “one with the earth.” Danielle Kurin, PhD, is a former University of California, Santa Barbara, professor who researches ancient civilizations of the central Andes through archeological excavations and the forensic examination of bones and skulls. Speaking with LiveScience in early 2022, Danielle Kurin opined on research into a cone-shaped, elongated skull that appears to have a metal implant in it.
The skull was given to Oklahoma City’s Museum of Osteology by an anonymous donor. If authentic, the find would be the earliest evidence of surgical implants among ancient Peruvians. The cone shape of the head is not unusual, as some ancient people of the Andes had a custom of squeezing the child’s developing head with bands to achieve a unique shape. In addition to the thinly hammered metal implant, the skull features a hole under the metal that may indicate trepanation, or an attempt to treat a cranial condition through primitive surgery. Dr. Kurin, reacting to a photo, described the implant as unlike anything she had seen. The older individual has fracture patterns in the skull that seem to indicate massive blunt-force trauma. With signs of healing apparent along concentric fracture lines, she believes that the man survived for some time after the injury, and the implant and hole may be related to efforts to treat him. She withheld further judgement on the authenticity of the find, noting that metallurgical technology varied widely across the Andes in that era, and that tests would be needed to place it in a specific locale. In addition, X-rays on the skull were needed to determine whether the purpose of the metal was to cover an open cranial fracture or a trepanation hole. Teaching and researching at the University of California, Santa Barbara, for almost a decade Danielle Kurin, PhD, has an extensive background in archaeology and seeks out clues from the past provided by skeletal and mummified remains. Danielle Kurin’s field research has explored some of the mountainous Central Andes regions of South America, particularly Peru.
In late 2021, some researchers, part of the Lambayeque Valley Archaeological Project, discovered what appeared to be the remains of about 29 people at the Huaca Santa Rosa de Pucala excavation site in Peru. They believe these bodies may have been part of a ritual sacrifice to deities at the pre-Inca temple. Situated in the Lambayeque region of Northern Peru, the temple site contains four graves, with the skeletons estimated to belong to toddlers and teenagers. One theory is that the sacrifice was carried out when the temple was erected as part of local ceremonies. This is the first-ever human offering linked to the Wari civilization, which inhabited the south-central Andes from 500 CE to 1000 CE and had settlements along Peru’s coast. Another significant aspect of the find is that it’s the first Wari ceremonial temple uncovered so far from the civilization’s main sphere of influence. It may lead scholars to reassess how Mochica and Wari cultures coexisted within the region. An accomplished author and researcher, Danielle Kurin is a former assistant professor and later tenured associate professor of bioarchaeology at the University of California at Santa Barbara. Danielle Kurin also has conducted extensive research on mummies from pre-historic sites throughout the Andes Mountains region.
Computerized tomography (CT) allows non-destructive evaluation of both external and internal structures of mummies, and human remains with non-bony tissues that have been preserved through natural or human processes. Current algorithms allow more definitive manipulation of CT data into real-time three-dimensional formats, which expands the applications of the technology. CT has been a very efficient tool for archaeological and anthropological studies of mummies since it allows important findings - such as the origin and evolution of diseases - without destroying the integrity of specimens. However, interpreting results may be challenging; for instance, the structural difference between ancient and modern soft tissues may confound standard radiological interpretation protocols. Another issue is that the mummification process may alter the appearance of tissues on scans, which can have critical implications for interpretation. Some literature argues that accurate anatomical evaluation may only be attained through more invasive means. |
AuthorDanielle Kurin - Award-Winning Educator and Researcher. Archives
June 2023
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